| For Albert Einstein, arguably the greatest physicist | | | | quantum cosmologist put it: "No microscopic |
| of the twentieth century, everything in the | | | | property is a property until it is an observed |
| physical world had to have an independent reality. | | | | property". Before the observation, there was no |
| That is, it had to exist independently of any | | | | object, but after the observation the object |
| observation or measurement of it. This applied to | | | | existed for everyone else also. Furthermore, |
| large objects as well as to particles, like the | | | | quantum theory states that events in one location |
| electron. This concept of an independent reality of | | | | can instantaneously "influence" events in another, |
| the physical world originated with Galileo in the | | | | even one far away, say in another galaxy. This |
| seventeenth century. He did two things which | | | | runs counter to the accepted truism that nothing |
| affected all subsequent science. First, he removed | | | | in the universe can be transmitted faster than the |
| the entire divine world of Greek and medieval | | | | speed of light. |
| philosophy from science. Up to then, this had been | | | | It is clear that these developments in quantum |
| a real world, though one which was quite | | | | mechanics have a devastating impact on our |
| independent of human participation. Its reality, | | | | sense of reality. Werner Heisenberg (the author |
| therefore, had been objective, while the reality of | | | | of thePrinciple of Indeterminacy) put it this way: " |
| the physical world, which did depend on human | | | | In the experiments about atomic events we have |
| perception through the senses, was of subjective | | | | to do with things and facts that are just as real |
| reality. After Galileo, the upper, divine world | | | | as any phenomena in daily life. But the atoms or |
| became one of belief only. | | | | elementary particles themselves are not real; |
| That left only the physical world for investigation. | | | | they form a world of potentialities or possibilities |
| Galileo agreed with the Greek philosophers that | | | | rather than one of things or facts." |
| the subjective nature of sense impressions made | | | | But the "things" or facts of daily life that |
| them so dependent on purely personal factors | | | | Heisenberg refers to are merely accumulations of |
| that they were unsuitable for any scientific | | | | enormous quantities of elementary particles. If |
| investigation. This led to his second fundamental | | | | these particles are not real, how can the "things" |
| change: he divided all natural phenomena into two | | | | of which they are composed be real? It is clear |
| classes, or sets of "qualities". His "secondary | | | | that the "reality" which Heisenberg refers to is the |
| qualities" included the majority of what we | | | | same as Einstein's "reality", that is the independent |
| perceive in nature, namely all that is known | | | | reality of physical objects. |
| through the senses of smell, touch, taste and | | | | If our observations are as important as quantum |
| hearing. He felt that all these perceptions needed | | | | theory states, it is clear that any explanation of |
| the presense of sense organs in human beings, so | | | | events in the physical world comes up against our |
| that they were hopelessly subjective and | | | | consciousness, if we are trying to explain what is |
| therefore had to be excluded from science. That | | | | going on, that is to find the meaning of events. No |
| left only his "primary qualities" as subjects fit for | | | | mere interpretation of quantum theory can avoid |
| science. These primary qualities were very few in | | | | the encounter with consciousness. As another |
| number and Rene Descartes later reduced them | | | | thinker put it: "Useful as it is under everyday |
| to just two, matter and motion. For Galileo, the | | | | circumstances to say that the world exists "out |
| matter and motion of objects persisted even | | | | there" independent of us, that view can no longer |
| without a human presence. He therefore felt that | | | | be upheld. There is a strange sense in which this is |
| their reality was objective, even though they | | | | a 'participatory universe'." |
| belonged to the physical world. | | | | All these conclusions and all this language of the |
| Although Galileo focused his new science of | | | | latest quantum mechanical musings is beginning to |
| physics on just matter and motion, he thought | | | | sound eerily familiar. To start with, Galileo's |
| that these two qualities alone could unlock all the | | | | worldview (still reflected by Einstein), has now |
| secrets of nature and explain completely the | | | | been decisively overturned by quantum |
| behavious of all objects. Later thinkers agreed | | | | mechanics. Before Galileo, the Greek worldview |
| with him. Descartes famously said, "give me | | | | prevailed, right through the Middle Ages. This |
| matter and motion and I will create the universe". | | | | worldview was highly "participatory", with man and |
| All Newton's laws involved only matter and | | | | nature connected in many ways. The latest |
| motion. | | | | physics is now returning to this view. |
| As time went on, physicists began to ascribe this | | | | Modern physics has also overturned other Galilean |
| independent, objective reality to everything | | | | axioms, like the one saying that mathematics is |
| physical, not just the matter and motion aspects | | | | the language of nature. The Platonic view of |
| of objects. By the end of the nineteenth century, | | | | mathematics was that is was purely a construct |
| for anything to be considered "real" it had to be | | | | of the human mind, without any outside reality. |
| physical and the only reality was the physical | | | | This is once more the view of modern physics, |
| world. This exactly explains Einstein's feelings and | | | | which maintains that a hypothesis, no matter how |
| assumptions. He, the observer, was quite | | | | many times it is proved right, will always remain |
| independent of the object observed, and his | | | | nothing more than a hypothesis, which might be |
| observations or measurements of the object did | | | | overturned the next day by new facts or |
| not influence or interfere with the independent | | | | arguments. |
| existence of that object. | | | | What we are seeing is that modern physics is |
| Most of us feel the same way as Einstein, in fact | | | | showing a very complete agreement not with |
| this whole argument up to now might seem to be | | | | Galileo, the founder of the science, but with the |
| belaboring the obvious. So here comes the point: | | | | very Greek traditions which Galileo was at such |
| modern quantum physics has shown that Einstein | | | | pains to overthrow in the seventeenth century. |
| was wrong! There is no objective world of | | | | For the Greeks, all physical phenomena, |
| independently existing objects. All natural | | | | perceivable through our senses, were not |
| phenomena are perceived through our senses and | | | | independent (that is objective) realities but merely |
| thus have no more than a subjective reality. They | | | | subjective appearances. Using different language, |
| are appearances, not realities. Galileo had made a | | | | modern physics agrees with this position. |
| fundamental philosophical error in assigning an | | | | Greek thinking about these "appearances" also |
| objective reality to his "primary qualities": he | | | | included the concept that they were the "actual |
| ignored the fact that you still needed the sense | | | | forms", on earth, representing the "potential |
| of sight to perceive matter and motion, so that | | | | forms", existing in the immaterial, objective world |
| these were just as subjective in nature as | | | | of the divine. The subjective, physical world had |
| anything else perceived through any of the other | | | | its origin in this objective, immaterial world. |
| senses. He was led to make this error by his | | | | Heisenberg's use of the word "potentialities" to |
| genuine feeling that he, the observer, no longer | | | | describe the microscopic world, which is not "real", |
| had the kind of connections that the medieval | | | | is telling. |
| man felt with observed nature. There was no | | | | Physics has tried to find the origin of matter |
| more unseen but felt participation with the | | | | within our world of nature. For hundreds of years |
| processes in the natural world. Galileo, the first | | | | it has looked for the ultimate, irreducible matter |
| modern man, saw nature analytically, as a | | | | particle, this origin of matter, by dividing matter |
| specimen on a slab, to be examined with a view | | | | into ever smaller particles. Classically, the atom |
| to finding a mathematical explanation for what | | | | was thought to be this ultimate particle. It was |
| was going on. As he put it: "The language of | | | | not. The proton was not. Finally, it was realized |
| nature is mathematics". Later thinkers, like | | | | that the size of a particle really depended on the |
| Descartes and Francis Bacon, agreed with him. | | | | amount of energy that could be directed at it, to |
| Newton's laws were mathematical expressions of | | | | smash it into even smaller particles. The end of |
| processes involving matter and motion which, to | | | | this process was not within this world of nature |
| him, were enough to lay bare all the secrets of | | | | because, at a certain energy level, all matter and |
| nature. | | | | force particles would merge into an |
| Later developments in physics in the early part of | | | | undifferentiated stream of energy. This realization |
| the twentieth century, when relativity and | | | | led to the concept of the string particle, as the |
| quantum mechanics showed the limitations of | | | | ultimate matter particle, by definition. The string |
| Newtonian physics, never addressed Galileo's | | | | particle is a one-dimensional particle which, as such, |
| errors specifically, so that even a luminary like | | | | cannot exist in our phenomenal world of nature. If |
| Albert Einstein (together with most ordinary | | | | it is to be the origin of matter, however, it must |
| people) still felt that the world had to be | | | | be "real" in some fashion, which suggests a |
| independently real. What finally broke the spell was | | | | further convergence with Greek thought. If the |
| the increasing dominance of quantum mechanics, | | | | string particle were to be the objectively real |
| a branch of modern physics that Einstein himself, | | | | origin of matter, in an immaterial world, it would fit |
| ironically, helped to found. Its most vocal | | | | well into a long-established philosophical |
| proponent, Niels Bohr, was engaged in a decades | | | | framework, with which modern physics agrees in |
| long argument with Einstein and the final proofs, | | | | every other way. |
| giving Bohr the victory, did not emerge until the | | | | The other outrageous results of quantum theory |
| 1970s, after the death of both of these friendly | | | | also become manageable if the concept of both a |
| rivals. | | | | subjective reality is used for the physical world of |
| The implications of quantum mechanics are so | | | | appearances and also one of objective reality for |
| outrageous and counterintuitive that physicists for | | | | the immaterial world of origins and "potential |
| the most part have ignored them and | | | | forms". This objective world could then be |
| concentrated instead on the highly successful | | | | thought of as sustaining the physical world of |
| mathematical explanations of events and their | | | | appearances in our absence, without having to |
| experimental proofs. Quantum mechanics is the | | | | worry about what role our consciousness has to |
| most successful system in physics today. None of | | | | play in the creative process. Within such an |
| its predictions has ever been proved wrong. It | | | | expanded frame of reference, physics could |
| has become the bedrock of the modern science. | | | | perform its functions of dealing with the world in |
| Yet it states flatly that observation not only | | | | a practical manner without constantly bumping up |
| marks the behaviour of the object observed, it | | | | against contradictory absurdities. |
| also brings it into existence. As one eminent | | | | |